Spike lee do the right thing essays

The Pentagon Papers. Volume 1, Chapter 4, "U.S. and France in lee do the right thing essays Indochina, 1950-56" (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971) Section 1, pp. 179-214. AID FOR FRANCE IN INDOCHINA, 1950-1954. The United States decision to provide military assistance to France and the Associated States of Indochina was reached informally in February/March 1950, funded by development growth in nigerian public, the President on May 1, 1950, and was announced on May 8 of that year. The decision was taken in the right thing spite of the U.S. desire to avoid direct involvement in personal statement a colonial war, and in spite of a sensing that France's political-military situation in Indochina was bad and was deteriorating. Spike Lee Do The Right Thing Essays! Moreover, predictions that U.S. aid would achieve a marked difference in the course of the Indochina War were heavily qualified. The situation in which the decision was made was completely dominated by the take-over of and consolidation of power in China by the communists. Paper About! Nationalist Chinese forces had been withdrawn from mainland China and Communist Chinese troops had arrived on the border of Indochina in essays late 1949. This period was the for job, high water mark of U.S. fears of direct Chinese Communist intervention in spike thing Indochina. NIE 5 of 29 December 1950 stated: "Direct intervention by Chinese Communist troops may occur at any time . . . it is economy essay growth philosophy structure, almost certain to occur in strength whenever there is danger either that the lee do thing, Viet Minh will fail to maintain its military objective of driving the French out of Indochina, or that the Bao Dai Government is succeeding in undermining the support of the Viet Minh." The rationale of the decision was provided by the U.S. view that the Soviet-controlled expansion of communism both in Asia and in Europe required, in the interests of U.S. national security, a counter in Indochina. The domino thesis was quite prominent. On 6 March 1950, the Secretary of Defense wrote the life essays tumblr, President as follows: "The choice confronting the spike lee do the right essays, United States is to research paper about gun control, support the legal government in Indochina or to face the extension of communism over lee do the right the remainder of the continental area of Southeast Asia and possibly westward . . Life Other Planet! ." Despite this statement, it was a generally accepted proposition that "regardless of current U.S. commitments for certain military assistance to China, the U.S. will not commit any of its armed forces to the defense of Indochina against overt, foreign aggression, under present circumstances." The decision to begin military assistance to France and the Associated States of Indochina was not made under the illusion of great expectations. In April 1950, the Joint Chiefs would go no further than to say that prompt delivery of the aid would do no more than create the "possibility of success." In July 1950, General Erskine, after completing his Presidential mission to Indochina, reported that "the amount of aid and the scope of the the right thing, assistance thus far requested by self on writing, the French were inadequate to the needs of the situation." All U.S. expectations seemed to have been underpinned by the Joint Chiefs' belief that "attainment of United States objectives in Asia can only be achieved by ultimate success in China." Results of the decision were mixed. Although implementation of the decision was partially successful in that it enabled the spike essays, French to continue the military campaign in Indochina to the time of the Geneva Accords, military assistance was by and large a failure as an instrument of U.S. policy: the U.S. Personal Statement Application! neither assured the French a military success, influenced the political situation to advantage, nor prevented the loss of North Vietnam to the communists at Geneva. The U.S. MAAG Indochina was unable to perform even the spike lee do the right thing, limited functions assigned it. The French, never eager for U.S. advice, succeeded in limiting the function of MAAG to order-taking in the commercial sense. Contributing to the initial U.S. decision to aid the French, and to economy philosophy structure, limiting the effectiveness of the U.S. program of assistance, were (1) setting impracticable preconditions for spike lee do essays assistance upon life papers planet, the French, (2) the lee do, U.S. proclivity to accept a slender chance of success without weighing alternatives, (3) the suppression of alternatives leading to decisional circularity and reinforcement of existing policies, (4) repeated failures of the U.S. to bargain effectively with the French, and essays, (5) the vulnerability of the the right thing, U.S. policy-making machinery to spoofing, particularly as regards U.S. credulity in accepting French information at face value and in being susceptible to "red" scares. The decision to provide assistance to France and life, the Associated States is the focus of this discussion; it was but one issue among hundreds preoccupying the spike, United States Government in the time period under consideration-the fall of China and the Korean War-and it was probably not regarded by those who made policy as among their critical decisions. Personal Application! There is no evidence of any high U.S. official arguing that any significant commitment threshold was being crossed. There were, however, those who maintained that the important anti-colonial stand of the U.S. was being undermined. Spike Lee Do The Right! These voices (and they were basically from the public domain) were drowned out by those who advocated immediate security needs. The importance of the decision was that when the development economy growth in nigerian public, U.S. was faced with an unambiguous choice between a policy of anti-colonialism and a policy of anti-communism, it chose the latter. And, although the spike lee do, decision was not perceived as getting the U.S. more deeply "involved" in Indochina, it did mark a tangible first step in that direction. THE U.S. AND FRANCE'S WITHDRAWAL FROM VIETNAM, 1954-1956. Vietnam was the for job application, crucible of spike, contemporary France. Military defeat by the Viet Minh--unprecedented victory of application, Asian over European--was but one political reagent: there was also intense frustration and disappointment among French of Rightist-colon convictions that sneaker-shod Asian peasants could undo a century of costly labor at France's "civilizing mission," and jeopardize the largest investment of French capital in the Far East. The Tonkin Delta region represented in a special way all that Vietnam meant to France. Tonkin, of lee do the right thing essays, all Vietnam, was where French economic stakes were highest, where the culture of France most completely overglossed indigenous ways, where stood educational focus of about, Vietnam--the University of thing, Hanoi, with its French faculty-and where Catholicism flourished among the rural folk. Thus, evacuation of essays tumblr, Tonkin per lee do the right essays the dictates of the Geneva Settlement stung less from a sense of humiliation over Dien Bien Phu than from a sense of abandonment: an epoch had closed, France was demeaned. Had the Geneva Settlement been fulfilled, France might have retained a presence and development economy essay, influence in Vietnam that would have mollified both the Right and Left. After all, no significant body of opinion in France held the French should continue to lee do, mold Vietnamese politics or that the French Expeditionary Corps should remain there undiminished-the reality of the DRV and the exigencies of North Africa rendered such a position untenable. Life Essays! The Left and the Center were quite willing for France to withdraw under the Geneva formula; even the lee do essays, "Indochina" clique within the army recognized the priority of Algeria. But France in the end, at personal for job application American instance, had to accept withdrawal without the cover of general elections, and to accede to a second, further, more final abandoment. The supplanting of France by the U.S. in South Vietnam, and the failure of the Geneva Settlement, both well advanced by mid-1956, denied the French Left its prospects for cooperation with Ho Chi Minh in a precedent-setting experiment in coexistence. It disappointed moderates who had hoped to preserve French cultural influence and salvage French capital. It enraged Rightists who interpreted American policies in Vietnam invidiously. None of these factions was prepared to take a stand for France's staying, but all attempted to draw political sustenance from acerbic treatment of the U.S. The whole episode of essays, French withdrawal from Vietnam, in fact, soured the Western alliance. It is self, possible that France's rejection of the European Defense Community on August 30, 1954, may have been in part payment for Soviet good offices on behalf of France at Geneva. But it is spike lee do essays, certain that many French were persuaded that the U.S. and the UK furnished inadequate support to France during the latter phases of the war, and at the Conference. And it is equally certain that American policy in the aftermath of Geneva widely alienated affection for the U.S. in France, and created that lack of confidence which the life essays, Suez crisis of summer, 1956, translated into outright distrust. After the Geneva Conference, all the governments involved in the right essays the Accords, with one significant exception, anticipated that France would remain in Vietnam. The exception was the State of Vietnam, whose Premier, Ngo Dinh Diem, was determined to uproot French influence as a concomitant to the establishment of a genuinely independent nationalist government. The policy of the about, United States was initially directed toward a partnership with France, a joint sponsorship of spike the right thing, Diem and the newly independent nation he headed. Almost at once, however, U.S. policy began to respond to military urgency, and this in turn caused the U.S. to move beyond partnership to reflection, primacy. In September of 1954, SEATO was brought into being, its protection extended to Vietnam by a protocol to the Manila Pact. The U.S. resolved through SEATO to balk further expansion of communist dominion, and looked to transforming Vietnam into a key redoubt in the line of containment. The U.S. was determined that Vietnam would become politically sound, economically self-sufficient, and spike lee do the right essays, militarily capable of providing for its own internal security, coping with invasion from North Vietnam, and contributing to the deterrent strength of the SEATO coalition. France, then beset with internal political divisions, and plagued with Algeria, evidenced doubt, indecision, and occasional reluctance in aiding Vietnam toward the foregoing objectives. The U.S. Theses And Dissertations Database South! was not prepared to wait. In late September 1954, the the right, U.S. cut out the French as middle-men in all its assistance for Vietnam, and began to deal directly with Diem, his government, and his armed forces. France did not readily accept this enlarged American role, nor was there complete agreement with the about gun control, U.S. Government that the United States should pursue a further shouldering aside of France. Through the fall of 1954, France-U.S. relations worsened, and a policy debate developed in Washington. Once again, military considerations emerged as paramount. The JCS were originally opposed to the United States assuming responsibility for spike the right thing training the Army of Vietnam. They took the position, however, that if political considerations dictated such a U.S. involvement "the Joint Chiefs of Staff would agree to the assignment of personal statement, a training mission to MAAG Saigon, with safeguards against French interference with the U.S. Spike The Right Thing! training mission." On October 26, 1954, the Secretary of Defense, acting on behalf of the President, instructed the JCS to prepare a "long-range program for the organization and training of a minimum number of free Vietnam forces necessary for growth in nigerian public structure internal security." The development of this plan and an appropriate working relationship with the French continued into 1955, and necessitated the spike lee do essays, dispatch to Vietnam of General J. Lawton Collins, with Ambassadorial status, to obtain a tri-partite agreement acceptable in Saigon, in Paris, and in Washington. Statement! During November 1954, the spike lee do the right, JCS expressed serious reservations about the success of such a combined undertaking. Nevertheless, the NSC considered the policy sound, and this judgment was confirmed from the field by General Collins. Collins reported that: It would be disastrous if the French Expeditionary Corps would be withdrawn prematurely since otherwise Vietnam would be overrun by an enemy attack before the Manila Pact Powers could be enacted. Collins recommended that the United States continue military aid to about, France to "encourage the French to retain sufficient forces." In the meantime, events in Vietnam seemed to support those who, like the JCS, continued to entertain strong reservations about the future of Ngo Dinh Diem and his government. Diem managed to survive attempted coups by army leaders, and succeeded in maintaining an unhappy peace with the several armed factions of Cochinchina. Lee Do The Right Thing! But his political future remained questionable at best. Paper Gun Control! At the same time, the French mission in Hanoi pressed hard to preserve French economic and cultural prerogatives in spike lee do North Vietnam, and certain French political leaders in Paris spoke grandiloquently of a cooperative modus vivendi with the DRV becoming a model for east-west relations--a disquieting message for the U.S. Secretary of State and those who shared his convictions within the Administration. Finally, parallel to these developments, the theses database south africa, Emperor Bao Dai, retaliating for Diem's vituperative political campaign against him, actively sought to supplant Diem. All the foregoing tension resolved to two central issues between the United States and France. The first was the question of how and by whom Vietnam's armed forces were to be trained. The second, and more far-reaching, was whether Ngo Dinh Diem was to remain at the head of Vietnam's government, or whether he was to be replaced by thing essays, another nationalist leader more sympathetic to personal, Bao Dai and France. The first issue was resolved relatively quickly. General Collins struck an agreement with General Ely in Vietnam by which, despite serious misgivings in Paris, France agreed to turn over the training of the Vietnamese army to the right thing essays, the U.S. and to withdraw French cadres. On February 12, 1955, the life other papers planet term, U.S. assumed responsibility for training Vietnamese forces, and the French disassociation began. But the essays, political controversy over Diem was less easily resolved. Diem exacerbated matters with increasingly vehement stricture against the French and Bao Dai. The United States on its part was insensitive to the impact within France of statement for job application, Diem's militant anti-communism-frequently directed at the French Left-and of the lee do the right thing, rancor aroused by U.S. statements portraying America as the only friend of Vietnamese nationalism. The U.S. did alert, however, to development economy essay philosophy public, French statements that Diem was categorically incapable of spike the right, unifying Vietnamese nationalists. French advice to the U.S. Development Economy Essay Philosophy Public! that Diem should, therefore, be replaced was seconded by Ambassador Collins from Vietnam. Lee Do The Right Thing! Throughout the winter and spring, Secretary Dulles and the Department of State in general seemed disposed to on writing essay, consider favorably suggestions that an alternative leader for the Vietnamese be placed in power. However, despite an ostensibly thorough search, no nationalist leader with qualities competitive with Diem's was identified. Both the U.S. and France were then caught up in the sweep of events. The armed sects directly challenged Diem's authority, and he responded with force. An uneasy truce ended the first clash in March, and amid the mounting tension in April 1955, the U.S., France, and amid the mounting tension in April 1955, the U.S., France, and Bao Dai all sought actively to bring about the right essays a change in the GVN. On 28 April, Diem, against africa U.S. advice, against French advice, and against lee do the advice of his cabinet, moved again against the sects. When Binh Xuyen resisted in Saigon, he committed the Vietnamese army to battle. Diem's forces won an immediate military victory, and simultaneously Diem's brother, Nhu, co-opted a committee of nationalist figures who called for Bao Dai's removal, and paper about gun control, transfer of civil and military power to Diem. Encouraged by Diem's success, the U.S. declared its unequivocal support for him as apposed to Bao Dai. The U.S. choice presented acute difficulties for France. The French Government was convinced that Nhu's "Revolutionary Committee" was under Viet Minh influence, and was strongly resentful of a renewed GVN campaign against French presence. In May 1955, France, the U.S., and Britain met in spike the right thing Paris to discuss European defense, but France promptly made Vietnam the principal agenda item. France maintained that the U.S., in backing Diem, forced upon planet, France the necessity for withdrawing altogether from Vietnam. The French Foreign Minister Faure held that Diem was "not only incapable but mad . . . France can no longer take risks with him." Secretary Dulles in reply indicated that the U.S. The Right! was aware of Diem's weaknesses, but stressed Diem's recent successes as indicating redeeming qualities. But, Dulles pointed out "Vietnam is not worth a quarrel with France," and offered U.S. Research Paper About Gun Control! withdrawal in preference to allied disunity. No decision was taken immediately, and during a recess Secretary Dulles received advice from the JCS that Diem seemed the most promising avenue to spike lee do the right thing essays, achievement of statement application, U.S. objectives, and that while withdrawal of the spike the right, French Expeditionary Corps is "ultimately to be desired," a precipitate withdrawal was to research paper about gun control, be prevented since it would "result in an increasingly unstable and precarious situation" and the eventual loss of South Vietnam to the right, communism. Secretary Dulles then proposed to the French that they continue to life other papers planet term, support Diem until a national assembly were elected. British support for Diem seems to have swayed Faure, and he accepted Dulles' proposal. The tri-partite meeting ended on a note of harmony, but the undertones were distinct: the days of joint U.S.- French policy were over; thereafter, the U.S. would act independently of France in Vietnam. Backed by spike lee do thing essays, the United States, Diem refused to open consultation with the North Vietnamese concerning general elections when the date for these fell due in July 1955. Pressing his military advantage against the sects, he moved to consolidate his position politically within South Vietnam. Life! In October, he won a resounding victory in a popular referendum in which voters were given a choice between Diem and Bao Dai. As Diem's political strength grew, his relations with Paris deteriorated. Essays! In December 1955, Diem suddenly terminated the existing economic and financial agreements with France, and called upon France to denounce the Geneva agreements and development economy in nigerian philosophy public, break relations with Hanoi. Spike Thing! Soon thereafter, he withdrew South Vietnamese representatives from the French Union Assembly. On January 2, 1956, general elections in France produced a government under Socialist Guy Mollet, a third of the members of which were communists or avowed neutralists. In early March, Mollet's Foreign Minister, Pineau, declared in a speech to the Anglo-American Press Association in Paris that France would actively seek policy position bridging East and West, and that there was no unanimity of policy among the U.S., UK, and France. He cited UK Middle East policy and U.S. support for Diem as contrary to French interests, and condemned both powers for stirring up the Moslem world to France's distinct disadvantage in North Africa. A few days later, at a SEATO Council meeting in Karachi, Pineau proclaimed the end of the "era of life tumblr, aggression," and called for spike lee do thing a "policy of statement for job application, coexistence." Action followed Pineau's line. On March 22, 1956, France agreed with Diem to withdraw the FEC altogether. On April 26, 1956, the French High Command in Saigon was disestablished. On the due date for the general elections agreed to at Geneva, France possessed no military forces in Vietnam. And the date for the fulfillment of the political portions of the Settlement, July 1956, coincided with the inception of the Suez crisis. I. AID FOR FRANCE IN INDOCHINA, 1950-1954. A. THE AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE DEVELOPS. 1. The U.S. and the French Colonial War. Because the spike the right thing, early phase (1946-1949) of the Indochina war was an reflection, overt attempt by the French to reassert authority and control over their Indochinese colonies, the United States, although aware that European Recovery Program (ERP) funds were indirectly used to finance the war, refused to support that war directly. However, American actions taken to assure a neutral position-refusal to sell armaments to the French for use in Indochina; refusal to transport troops, arms, or ammunition "to or from Netherlands East Indies or French Indochina"--accompanied by public and private statements of anti-colonialist sentiments, did constitute, at least in French eyes, a policy hostile to the French interest in lee do the right Indochina. Therefore, early in on writing 1947, the Department of State attempted to reassure the French Government, and to make U.S. policies and actions more palatable to lee do the right, them: . In spite any misunderstanding which might have arisen in and dissertations database south minds French in regard to our position concerning Indochina they must appreciate that we have fully recognized France's sovereign position in that area and we do not wish to have it appear that we are in any way endeavoring undermine that position, and French should know it is our desire to spike the right thing, be helpful and we stand ready assist any appropriate way we can to find solution for Indochinese problem. At same time we cannot shut our eyes to fact that there are two sides this problem and that our reports indicate both a lack French understanding of other side (more in Saigon than in Paris) and continued existence dangerously outmoded colonial outlook and methods in area. Neither direct nor indirect assistance to the French effort in paper about Indochina was deemed "appropriate," however, until the French took concrete steps to grant autonomy to Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The U.S. was prepared to support the "Bao Dai solution" for Vietnam when and if Bao Dai acquired genuine independence. The U.S. warned France against settling for a "native government [headed by spike lee do the right thing essays, Bao Dai] which by failing to develop appeal among Vietnamese might become virtually [a] puppet government, separated from and dissertations database africa [the] people and existing only by [the] presence [of] French military forces." In March, 1949, in the so-called Elysee Agreement, France contracted with Bao Dai to grant "independence within the French Union" to Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Despite U.S. urgings, the Elysee Agreement remained a potentially empty and ill-defined French promise for eleven months. In that period, the Nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-shek were driven from the China mainland, and in November, Mao's legions arrived at the Indochina border. In January, 1950, Ho Chi Minh declared that his was the "only legal government of the Vietnamese people" and indicated his willingness to cooperate with any nation willing to recognize it on the basis of "equality and mutual respect of national sovereignty and territory." The Communist Chinese promptly responded with recognition , followed by the Soviets. In France, there was a sharp debate in the National Assembly between Leftist advocates of an immediate truce with the lee do thing, Viet Minh, and Government supporters of ratification for the Elysee Agreement. On 2 February 1950, the French Government prevailed, and the Elysee Agreement was formally ratified. Under the essays tumblr, circumstances, the United States determined that this action met its minimum requirements for tangible French progress towards Vietnamese autonomy. On 3 February, President Truman approved recognition of the States of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Within three months the United States decided to extend economic and military aid to the new States. Lee Do The Right Thing Essays! On 8 May 1950, the Secretary of State announced that: The United States Government, convinced that neither national independence nor democratic evolution exist in any area dominated by Soviet imperialism, considers the situation to be such as to warrant its according economic aid and military equipment to the Associated States of Indochina and to France in order to statement for job, assist them in restoring stability and permitting these states to pursue their peaceful and democratic development. The U.S. Spike Lee Do The Right Thing Essays! involvement in the Vietnam war originated with its decision to on writing essay, provide assistance to France and spike, the Associated States, and to form MAAG Indochina. Paper About! Therefore, it is of particular importance to understand the reasons for the decision, the lee do thing, form of its execution, and its effects. 2. Essays Tumblr! The Containment of Communism. U.S. chagrin and increasing concern over the post-World War II expansion of the Soviet Union in Europe, together with fear of further gains by communism, set the tone of U.S. policy toward Asian communist nations in the 1948-1950 period. As the Secretary of State's statement above indicates, these were the days of the "monolithic Communist bloc," dominated by the Soviet Union. A National Security Council policy paper of 1949 stated that: The USSR is now an Asiatic power of the first magnitude with expanding influence and interest extending throughout continental Asia and into spike lee do thing the Pacific. Since the defeat of Japan . . . the Soviet Union has been able to consolidate its strategic position until the base of Soviet power in Asia comprises not only the Soviet Far East, but also China north of the economy philosophy public, Great Wall, Northern Korea, Sakahalin, and the Kuriles. The question of how best to thing essays, oppose the expansion of communism in Asia was raised to crisis proportions by the "loss" of China. An extensive and personal, acrimonious national debate on foreign policy was stirred, conducted in the midst of growing public apprehension over spike lee do thing essays communist penetration, espionage, and subversion in Europe and within the personal statement, United States. Many advocated increased aid to the Chinese Nationalists, who were regarded by lee do thing, many, even at this late date, as the bulwark containing communism in Asia. Theses And Dissertations Database South! Although no major emphasis was given Indochina in 1949, NSC papers did discuss the importance of the Franco-Viet Minh struggle, and link the future of Indochina with that of the rest of the world: In any event, colonial-nationalist conflict provides a fertile field for subversive communist activities, and it is now clear that Southeast Asia is the target of a coordinated offensive directed by the Kremlin. In seeking to gain control of Southeast Asia, the Kremlin is motivated in part by a desire to spike lee do the right thing essays, acquire Southeast Asia's resources and communication lines, and to deny them to us. But the political gains which would accrue to the USSR from communist capture of Southeast Asia are equally significant. The extension of and dissertations south africa, communist authority in lee do the right thing China represents a grievous political defeat for us: if Southeast Asia also is swept by communism we shall have suffered a major political rout the repercussions of which will be felt throughout the rest of the world, especially in the Middle East and in a then critically exposed Australia. It was precisely the extension of communist authority over China referred to above that led to increased emphasis in research U.S. policy on Indochina in late 1949 and 1950. Following the Chinese Communist victories of 1949 and spike the right essays, the movement of Chinese Communist troops to the border of Indochina in November of that year, NSC 64 (February 27, 1950) [Doc. About! 1] concluded that "the Departments of State and Defense should prepare, as a matter of priority, a program of all practicable measures designed to protect U.S. security interests in Indochina." On the same day, following the spike lee do thing, Communist Chinese (January 18) and the Soviet (January 30) recognition of the self on writing, Ho Chi Minh regime, the United States announced its recognition of the Bao Dai Government. Theretofore, the U.S. Essays! had remained neutral, hesitating to choose between supporting France, a friendly colonial power engaged in re-establishing its authority, or supporting the Viet Minh, a communist-dominated independence movement in opposition to that European ally. This dilemma had been resolved by the victory of the Chinese Communists over planet the Nationalists, and by the threat posed to Indochina. Spike Thing Essays! The United States policy of support for the French and the Associated States was adjudged one befitting an anti-colonial democracy: support of nationalism and independence; opposition to attempted encroachments thereon by international communism. 3. "The Line of Containment" and development essay growth in nigerian philosophy structure, "The Domino Theory" The logic of this shift in U.S. policy is found not only in the direct threat to Southeast Asia posed by Communist China (and the Soviet Union), but also in the broader strategic concept of a line of the right thing essays, containment, and in the early articulation of what later became known as the "domino theory." Discussion of the line of containment centered about where that line was to be drawn: Indochina, and, later, Korea, fell on the free side of that line. The domino notion had been advanced by General Claire Chennault, among others, in the reference to Nationalist China; the domino theory as applied to paper about, Indochina reinforced the spike lee do the right thing essays, decision of where to draw the line of self, containment. Both ideas were embodied by the Joint Chiefs of Staff in a 1950 memorandum to the Secretary of Defense evaluating "the strategic importance, from the military point of view, of Southeast Asia": c. Southeast Asia is a vital segment in the line of containment of spike the right thing, Communism stretching from Japan southward and development public, around to the Indian Peninsula . . . The security of the three major non-Communist base areas in this quarter of the world-Japan, India, and Australia-depends in a large measure on the denial of Southeast Asia to the Communists. If Southeast Asia is lost, these three base areas will tend to be isolated from one another; d. The fall of Indochina would undoubtedly lead to the fall of the other mainland states of lee do essays, Southeast Asia . e. The fall of other papers planet, Southeast Asia would result in the virtually complete denial to the United States of the Pacific Littoral of spike thing, Asia . f. . . . Soviet control of reflection on writing, all the major components of spike lee do the right thing, Asia's war potential might become a decisive factor affecting the balance of power between the United States and economy philosophy public structure, the USSR . g. A Soviet position of dominance over the Far East would also threaten the United States position in Japan . . . The feasibility of retention by the United States of its offshore island bases could thus be jeopardized. [Doc. 3] This theory, whether more or less completely articulated, appears in the relevant NSC papers of the Indochina War period, and underlies all major U.S. policy decisions taken relevant to the area. 4. U.S. Spike The Right Thing! Perception of the Chinese Communist Threat. In the words of other papers planet term, NSC 64 (February, 1950), "The presence of Chinese Communist troops along the border of Indochina makes it possible for arms, material and troops to move freely from Communist China to the northern Tonkin area now controlled by spike essays, Ho Chi Minh. There is already evidence of movement of arms." NIE 5 maintained somewhat later, as the decision to help the French was being re-examined, that: "The Communist Chinese regime is already furnishing the Viet Minh materiel, training, and life other papers planet, technical assistance. Official French sources report that Chinese Communist troops are already present in Tonkin in some strength . . . Direct intervention by Chinese Communist troops may occur at any time . Spike The Right Thing Essays! . . It is almost certain to reflection on writing essay, occur in strength whenever there is danger either that the lee do thing, Viet Minh will fail to development economy essay growth public structure, attain its military objective of driving the French out of Indochina, or that the Bao Dai Government is succeeding in undermining the support of the Viet Minh." NIE 5 appeared on spike lee do, December 29, 1950. Although the threat of intervention to paper about gun control, be expected from Communist China did not again reach this intensity or certainty during the remainder of the war-the estimated probability of lee do thing, intervention declined consistently after the publication of NIE 5-estimates throughout the period indicate continuing Communist Chinese provision of personal, military arms, materiel, and training to the Viet Minh, and the existence of Communist Chinese potential for direct intervention. No direct reference was made to possible Viet Minh resentment toward, or resistance to, direct Chinese intervention. In sum, the the right essays, U.S. Life Other Papers Term! perceived a major Chinese threat at the time the decision to support France and the Associated States was made; a high probability was assigned direct Chinese Communist intervention at the time this decision was being confirmed; this assigned probability declined rapidly, and it remained low through the post-Korean war period. It was believed that the Chinese were providing assistance to the Viet Minh throughout the lee do thing, period late 1949-1954. 5. U.S. Perceptions of the development economy essay growth philosophy public structure, Situation Within Vietnam. On April 5, 1950, the lee do thing, Joint Chiefs of Staff, referring to intelligence estimates, indicated to the Secretary of Defense their view that "the situation in Southeast Asia has deteriorated," and that, further, "without United States assistance, this deterioration will be accelerated." (The implication that U.S. assistance would result in improvement over and above the present situation cannot be detected in self reflection on writing essay this carefully worded statement.) The Joint Chiefs of spike thing essays, Staff went on to state that: "In general, the basic conditions of political and economic stability in in nigerian structure this area, as well as the military and internal security conditions, are unsatisfactory. These factors are closely interrelated, and it is probable that, from the long-term point of view, political and economic stability is the controlling factor. On the other hand, the military situation in some areas, particularly Indochina, is of pressing urgency." NIE 5 was the lee do the right essays, over-all U.S. assessment of the situation in Vietnam closest in time to the U.S. decision to support the French and the Associated States. Tumblr! It estimated the French position as "critically endangered by the Viet Minh," and as "precarious." Combining the more detailed estimates of this document with statements and estimates contained in spike the right thing other U.S. documents contemporary with NIB 5, the following picture emerges: a. The Military Situation. (1) French-Viet Minh areas of control-see Figures 1-5. (2) Force ratio-French between 1.5 and 1.6 to 1 Viet Minh; vis-a-vis regular forces in the Tonkin Delta, the essay growth in nigerian philosophy structure, ratio was reversed-approximately 1.15 Viet Minh to 1 French (NIE 5). (3) Equipment status-French superiority, but Viet Minh improving due to Chinese aid. (4) Mobility-Viet Minh superior; French roadbound. (5) Strategy-French strategy lacking in aggressiveness, defensive, of lee do thing, doubtful value. (6) Status of Vietnamese National Army-essentially none; "only a slight chance that the French can maintain their military position long. enough" to build such an army. (7) Relative capabilities-danger of a major military defeat of the French by the Viet Minh in life other term Tonkin within six to nine months, which would jeopardize the French position in the remainder of Vietnam, Laos, and spike lee do thing essays, Cambodia. b. The Economic and Political Situation. French resources badly strained; little or no real nationalist Vietnamese leadership, government; little popular support of Bao Dai regime; political and economic. situation generally poor. c. French Objectives in Vietnam. French slowness and obstruction over the years in creating a Vietnamese national government and essay growth philosophy public, national army (March 8, 1949, agreements were not. ratified by France until February 2, 1950), and continued slowness in giving control of the bureaucracy to the Vietnamese, indicate a reluctant departure, if any departure, from colonial objectives. d. French Resolve to the right thing, Remain in Vietnam. ". there are grounds for questioning the French will to remain in papers planet term Indochina." Thus, the American perception of the spike, situation in Vietnam in 1950 was generally one of gloom, with little light at the end of the tunnel; in retrospect. it seems reasonably accurate. B. THE BEGINNING OF AMERICAN AID. 1. The Decision to Assist France and the Associated States. a. French Request Aid. United States involvement in the bleak Indochinese situation was hastened when, on February 16, 1950, the French requested U.S. military and economic assistance for the prosecution of the Indochinese war. The French forwarded their request after deciding "to set forth to the United States Government fully and frankly the. extreme gravity of the situation in Indochina. " . the truth of the matter was that the effort in Indochina was such of a drain on France that a long-term program of assistance was necessary and it was only from the United States that it could come. Otherwise. it was very likely that France might be forced to reconsider her entire policy with the possible view to cutting her losses and about, withdrawing from Indochina. looking into the future it was obvious . . . that France could not continue indefinitely to bear this burden alone if the expected developments in regard to increased assistance to Ho Chi Minh came about . . . In any event the French Government was confronted with necessity of reducing the present French forces in Indochina by at least 25,000 not only for spike lee do the right essays budgetary reasons, but because additional men were urgently needed in reflection on writing connection with French national military program. Yet this appeal for aid, its thinly-veiled reinforcing arguments referring to the right thing, withdrawal and the defense of Europe (on the day following the severing of U.S.- Bulgarian relations), was unaccompanied by personal statement for job application, a willingness to satisfy a U.S. request for France to announce the "evolutionary nature" of the the right thing, governments of the Associated States, or to clarify otherwise the French intentions toward Indochina. On February 27, a Department of State report on theses database, the position of the United States with respect to Indochina was submitted for the NSC's consideration. Issued on February 27 as NSC 64, the report concluded that: 10. It is important to United States security interests that all practicable measures be taken to prevent further Communist expansion in Southeast Asia. Indochina is a key area of Southeast Asia and lee do the right essays, is under immediate threat. 11. The neighboring countries of Thailand and life essays, Burma could be expected to fall under Communist domination if Indochina were controlled by a Communist-dominated government. The balance of spike the right, Southeast Asia would then be in grave hazard. 12. Accordingly, the Departments of State and Defense should prepare as a matter of statement for job, priority a program of spike the right essays, all practicable measures designed to protect United States security interests in self on writing Indochina. The Right Thing Essays! [Doc. 1] To "facilitate" Department of Defense consideration of NSC 64, then Deputy Under Secretary of State Dean Rusk provided Major General James H. Burns of OSD a brief statement of Department of State policy in other papers Indochina and Southeast Asia: The Department of State believes that within the limitations imposed by existing commitments and strategic priorities, the resources of the spike the right, United States should be deployed to reserve Indochina and essay, Southeast Asia from further Communist encroachment. The Department of State has accordingly already engaged all its political resources to lee do the right thing, the end that this object be secured. The Department is now engaged in the process of urgently examining what additional economic resources can effectively be engaged in the same operation. It is now, in the opinion of the Department, a matter of the greatest urgency that the Department of Defense assess the life, strategic aspects of the situation and consider, from the military point of view, how the United States can best contribute to the prevention of further Communist encroachment in that area. In a memorandum for spike lee do the right the President of March 6, 1950, the Secretary of Defense described U.S. options as follows: The French are irrevocably committed in Indochina and on writing essay, are supporting the spike lee do the right, three states as a move aimed at achieving non-Communist political stability . . . The choice confronting the United States is to support the legal governments in Indochina or to face the extension of Communism over the remainder of the continental area of Southeast Asia and possibly westward. b. The Griffin Mission. While the choice among alternatives awaited provision of the views of the database africa, Joint Chiefs of Staff and the military departments, the Secretary of State sent to lee do the right thing essays, the Far East "the Griffin Mission," which was given the task of self on writing, surveying "the kinds and approximate value of assistance needed" in Indochina (among other countries). Departing when it did, some five months following the fall of Nationalist China, and headed by the former Deputy Chief of the Aid Mission to Mainland China, the Griffin Mission was probably intended to avoid further attacks on the State Department's Asia policy as well as to determine how U.S. The Right Essays! economic resources might effectively be employed in Southeast Asia. On March 22, the research paper, Griffin Mission report recommended U.S. aid for a program of rural rehabilitation, the provision of lee do essays, limited amounts of commodities and industrial equipment, and a program of technical assistance. These measures were estimated to cost $23.5 million for the period through June, 1951. The mission also recommended the "psychological shock of ships with military aid material in the immediate future," as a measure to dramatize the U.S. commitment to and dissertations africa, those on the scene. On April 5, the Joint Chiefs of Staff responded to a request by the Secretary of Defense with recommendations for measures which, from the spike lee do the right essays, United States military point of view, might prevent communist expansion in Southeast Asia. The six most important points made by essays tumblr, the Chiefs are these: (1) A recommendation for early implementation of military aid programs for spike lee do the right thing essays Indochina and the other states of Southeast Asia, with funds already allocated to the states of Southeast Asia, to be delivered at the earliest practicable date and to theses africa, be augmented as a matter of urgency with funds from the unallocated portion of the President's emergency fund. For the next fiscal year, an estimated $100 mllion will be required for the military portion of this program. (2) "In view of the history of military aid in China, the Joint Chiefs of Staff urge that these aid programs be subject, in any event, to the following conditions: "a. That United States military aid not be granted unconditionally; rather that it be carefully controlled and that the aid program be integrated with political and economic programs; and. "b. That requests for military equipment be screened first by the right essays, an officer designated by the Department of Defense and on duty in the recipient state. These requests should be subject to his determination as to paper, the feasibility and spike lee do the right thing essays, satisfactory coordination of specific military operations. It should be understood that military aid will only personal statement, be considered in connection with such coordinated operational plans as are approved by the representative of the lee do the right, Department of Defense on duty in for job the recipient country. Further, in conformity with current procedures, the final approval of all programs for lee do the right essays military materiel will be subject to the concurrence of the Joint Chiefs of Staff." (3) "Formation of a Southeast Asia Aid Committee is recommended. (4) "The Joint Chiefs of Staff recognize the political implications involved in military aid to other planet, Indochina. It must be appreciated, however, that French armed forces . . . are in spike the field and that if these were to be withdrawn this year because of political considerations, the development economy in nigerian structure, Bao Dai regime probably could not survive even with United States aid. If the United States were now to insist upon independence for Vietnam and a phased French withdrawal from that country, this might improve the political situation. The French could be expected to interpose objections to, and certainly delays in such a program. Conditions in Indochina, however, are unstable and spike essays, the situation is apparently deteriorating rapidly so that the urgent need for at least an initial increment of military and economic aid is psychologically overriding. Life Planet Term! The Joint Chiefs of Staff, therefore, recommend the provision of military aid to Indochina at the earliest practicable date under a program to implement the President's action approving the allocation of $15 million for Idochina and that corresponding increments of political arid economic aid be programmed on an interim basis without prejudice to the pattern of the policy for additional military, political and economic aid that may be developed later." (5) ". . . the spike the right thing essays, Joint Chiefs of Staff recommend the development in nigerian public structure, immediate establishment of a small United States military aid group in Indochina . . . The Joint Chiefs of Staff would expect the senior member of lee do thing essays, this group to sit in consultation with military representatives of France and Vietnam and possibly of Laos and Cambodia. In addition to screening requests for materiel, he would be expected to insure full coordination of military plans and efforts between the French and Vietnamese forces and to africa, supervise the allocation of materiel." (6) "The Joint Chiefs of Staff believe in spike thing essays the possibility of success of a prompt coordinated United States program of military, political, and economic aid to Southeast Asia and feel that such a success might well lead to the gaining of the research paper about, initiative in spike lee do thing the struggle in that general area." The last of these points is clearly fundamental to the undertaking of any program of assistance; yet in the Chiefs' memorandum it appears only as the concluding portion of the paragraph (paragraph 15) recommending establishment of a military aid group in Indochina, and is subsequently subjected to the qualification that "attainment of United States objectives in paper about gun control Asia can only be achieved by lee do thing, ultimate success in China." More remarkable, however, is the rarity with which even such equivocal predictions of success appear in the available documents relating directly to the decision to other papers, provide assistance to Indochina. Direct statements on the probable effectiveness of such United States programs of the period are typically absent; indirect statements are typically of the implied-imperative ("we must do X if Asia is to be saved."), or the negative-imperative (if we do not do X, Asia will be lost"). There was no assurance of spike essays, military success given; and the calculus of the decision-making process relating to the weighing of the probability of success against the costs of failure of U.S. programs in the 1950 period is not evident, unfortunately, in available documents. d. Presidential Approval. On May 1, 1950, President Truman approved the allocation of $10 million to the Department of Defense to cover the early shipment of research paper about gun control, urgently needed military assistance items to thing, Indochina, thus taking the first crucial decision regarding U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. On May 8, the Secretary of State, in a statement at the ministerial level meeting in Paris, announced United States assistance to the Associated States and France. And on May 24, the governments of France and the Associated States were notified of the United States intention to establish an economic aid mission to the Associated States, thus marking the implementation of the recommendations of the Griffin Mission. On June 27, 1950, President Truman, in announcing the onset of the Korean war, also stated that he had "directed acceleration in the furnishing of military assistance to the forces of France and the Associated States in Indochina and the dispatch of a military mission to provide close working relations with those forces." [Doc. 8] The concept of a military assistance advisory group had also been approved, although the President did not refer to MAAG in his public statement. Also, in June, following the recommendation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Southeast Asia Aid Policy Committee was established. e. Erskine Mission. The military mission dispatched by the President and headed by Major General Graves B. Erskine, USMC, arrived in in nigerian philosophy public structure Saigon on July 15, and reported its findings on August 5. General Erskine reported that a permanent solution of the Indochina crisis went beyond military action alone, the core of the problem being a deep-seated hatred and distrust of the French by the population that precluded their cooperation in the prosecution of the war. The mission also reported that the amount of aid and the scope of the assistance thus far requested by the French were inadequate to the needs of the lee do the right essays, situation. The first elements of the U.S. MAAG were assigned to Indochina on August 3, 1950; Brigadier General Francis G. Brink, USA, assumed command as the development economy essay in nigerian philosophy, first Chief of MAAG on October 10. The mission of the MAAG was limited to thing, provision of material assistance to the French forces and indirect provision of military aid to the forces of the Associated States; General Brink was directed not to assume any training or advisory responsibilities toward the indigenous armies. But from the outset, the French rigorously limited end-use inspections of MAAG to a small number of carefully prescribed visits. f. Essay Growth In Nigerian Philosophy! JCS Reevaluation. After the initial decision to provide assistance to France and the Associated States had been taken, the formation of an economic mission had been announced, the first shipment of arms and equipment had arrived in Indochina, and lee do thing essays, the MAAG had been approved and was in the process of formation, concern mounted over reflection the soundness of spike lee do essays, these moves. The Joint Chiefs of Staff were again asked by the Secretary of Defense to formulate a position on future U.S. actions with respect to Indochina, and reflection on writing essay, the Southeast Asia Aid Policy Committee (SEAAPC) published, on October 11, 1950, a draft "Proposed Statement of U.S. The Right! Policy on Indochina." The SEAAPC statement proposed adding another dimension to U.S. assistance policy: "Regardless of current U.S. commitments for provision of certam military assistance to Indochina, the reflection, U.S. will not commit any of its armed forces to the defense of Indochina against overt, foreign aggression, under present circumstances." The paper also recommended that the U.S. support the "prompt acceleration of the formation of new national armies of the three Associated States," and a covering memorandum to lee do the right thing essays, the Secretaries of State and paper about, Defense recommended that if negotiations were conducted with the French, U.S. representatives should: . secure French acceptance of the following conditions which shall attach to lee do thing, the extension of U.S. assistance in the formation of national armies in Indochina: (1) French Union Forces would not be withdrawn from papers planet Indochina until such Associated States armies are fully trained and ready to lee do thing, act effectively in replacement; (2) France would not decrease its outlays for Indochina below the 1950 rate during the period of the American military aid requested; (3) the national armies project would have the approval of the three Associated States governments; (4) the High Commissioner for Indochina, the French Command, and the three Associated States would maintain full consultative relations with the Legation and personal application, MAAG during the period of the formation of the armies. The Joint Chiefs of Staff reevaluation appeared on the right, October 27: military aid should be continued on an expedited basis. Again the judgment was offered that genuine autonomy and economy essay in nigerian structure, self-government had to be extended to lee do thing, the people of reflection essay, Indochina to ameliorate the basic cause of the deterioration of security in Indochina: lack of popular support for the authorities. But the most clearly articulated and spike lee do the right thing, complete expression of the Joint Chiefs' over-all position at year end is self, found in NSC 64/1, a November 28 paper by the Chiefs which takes account of a report from General Brink and the Southeast Asia Aid Policy Committee's draft of October 11; in fact, this statement of short- and long-run objectives contained in NSC 64/1 was to remain the basis of the right thing essays, United States policy toward Indochina for other planet the duration of the French-Indochina war: SHORT TERM OBJECTIVES. a. The United States should take action, as a matter of urgency, by all means practicable short of the actual employment of United States military forces, to deny Indochina to Communism. b. As long as the present situation exists, the United States should continue to insure that the lee do the right thing, primary responsibility for life other papers planet the restoration of peace and security in Indochina rests with the French. c. The United States should seek to the right thing essays, develop its military assistance program for Indochina based on an over-all military plan prepared by the French, concurred in by the Associated States of Indochina, and reflection on writing, acceptable to the United States. (1) Both the spike the right thing essays, plan and the program should be developed and implemented as a matter of urgency. It should be clearly understood, however, that United States acceptance of the plan is limited to other papers, the logistical support which the United States may agree to furnish. The aid provided under the program should be furnished to the French in Indochina and to the Associated States. Essays! The allocation of United States military assistance as between the French and the national armies of Indochina should be approved by the French and United States authorities in Indochina. (2) Popular support of the Government by the Indochinese people is essential to a favorable settlement of the security problem of Indochina. Therefore, as a condition to the provision of those further increases in military assistance to research paper, Indochina necessary for the implementation of an agreed over-all military plan, the United States Government should obtain assurances from the French Government that: (a) A program providing for the eventual self-government of Indochina either within or outside of the French Union will be developed, made public, and implementation initiated at once in order to strengthen the national spirit of the Indochinese in spike essays opposition to Communism. (b) National armies of the Associated States of Indochina will be organized as a matter of urgency. While it is database south, doubtful that the buildup of these armies can be accomplished in thing time to other planet, contribute significantly to the present military situation, the direct political and psychological benefits to be derived from spike the right essays this course would be great and would thus result in immediate, although indirect, military benefits. (c) Pending the formation and training of Indochinese national armies as effective units, and as an interim emergency measure, France will dispatch sufficient additional armed forces to Indochina to insure that the restoration of peace and internal security in life papers planet term that country will be accomplished in accordance with the timetable of the over-all military plan for Indochina. (d) France will change its political and spike thing, military concepts in Indochina to: i. Eliminate its policy of "colonialism." ii. Provide proper tutelage to the Associated States. iii. Insure that a suitable military command structure, unhampered by political interference, is established to conduct effective and appropriate military operations. (3) At an appropriate time the United States should institute checks to satisfy itself that the conditions set forth in subparagraph c.(2) above are being fulfilled. d. The United Sttates should exert all practicable political and diplomatic measures required to obtain the recognition of the Associated States by the other non-Communist states of Southeast and South Asia. e. In the self reflection, event of overt attack by organized Chinese Communist forces against Indochina, the United States should not permit itself to become engaged in a general war with Communist China but should, in concert with the United Kingdom, support France and the Associated States by all means short of the actual employment of United States military forces. This support should include appropriate expansion of the present military assistance program and endeavors to lee do the right essays, induce States in the neighborhood of Indochina to commit armed forces to resist the aggression. f. The United States should immediately reconsider its policy toward Indochina whenever it appears that the French Government may abandon its military position in that country or plans to development growth in nigerian structure, refer the problem of Indochina to the United Nations. Unless the situation throughout the world generally, and spike lee do essays, Indochina specifically, changes materially, the personal statement for job, United States should seek to lee do essays, dissuade the French from referring the Indochina question to the United Nations. g. Inasmuch as the United States-sponsored resolution, "Uniting for Peace," has been adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, and should a situation develop in Indochina in a manner similar to that in Korea in economy essay in nigerian philosophy structure which United Nations forces were required, the United States would then probably be morally obligated to contribute its armed forces designated for service on behalf of the spike lee do thing, United Nations. It is, therefore, in the interests of the United States to take such action in Indochina as would forestall the need for the General Assembly to invoke the provisions of the in nigerian philosophy structure, resolution, "Uniting for spike lee do Peace." The JCS also proposed long-term objectives, urging the development of an underground guerrilla warfare capability, a psychological warfare program ("to demonstrate the evils of Communism. . . . For Job! and to warn . . . of renewed Chinese imperialism"), and encouragement of an appropriate regional security arrangement. These concepts formed the heart of an NSC Staff Study of December 28. The initial decision to give assistance was confirmed after nearly one year's continual re-examination, and remained basic to U.S. policy for lee do the right essays the remainder of the war. 2. MAP for Indochina. The U.S. military assistance program to the French and and dissertations database south, Associated States was implemented rapidly, considering the major U.S. commitment to lee do thing essays, the Korean war. In a somewhat premature judgment of outcomes, a progress report on the implementation of NSC 64 (March 15, 1951) stated that "American military aid furnished the States' forces and the Army of the French Union may have been the decisive factor in the preservation of the area against Communist aggression." Through 1952 and into 1954 the theses database south, MDAP shipments to Indochina increased steadily: by February 3, 1953, the United States had shipped 137,200 long tons of material (224 ships' cargoes); by July 1954, approximately 150,000 long tons had been sent, including 1,800 combat vehicles, 30,887 motor transport vehicles, 361,522 small arms and essays, machine guns, 438 naval craft, 2 World War II aircraft carriers, and about 500 aircraft. By the conclusion of the Geneva agreements in July, 1954, the U.S. had delivered aid to Indochina at statement an original cost of $2,600 million. Spike Lee Do Essays! Nonetheless, protests of the French at the slowness of life other papers, deliveries and the "interference" of MAAG with French requests were recurrent, and peaked, during the crisis days of 1954. Yet these complaints probably reflected less genuine U.S. shortcomings than French resentment of American efforts to advise, screen, inspect, and verify, and sheer frustration. Moreover, the vagaries of the French logistic system not only made the MAAG job more difficult, but further impeded combat supplies. In spite of the conditions under which U.S. assistance to France and the Associated States was given, the thing essays, MAAG during the period of the Indochina war was little more than a small (70 in 1950, 342 in personal for job application 1954) supply-support group which exerted far more influence upon U.S. decisions than on lee do, the French. The French, never eager for American advice, not only succeeded in limiting the function of MAAG to order-taking in the commercial sense, but in fact-through adroit pressuring of officials above the MAAG-sometimes reduced MAAG to on writing, the position of taking their military orders. Available data do not permit detailed evaluation of the efficiency of MAP, but it seems clear that French restrictions on the U.S. MAAG reduced it to virtual impotence. If it would be an eror to evaluate the effectiveness of the U.S. program in terms of war outcome, and spike essays, if the efficiency of MAP and MAAG cannot meaningfully be analyzed, it remains to evaluate the degree to which France met the conditions under which assistance was tendered, which presumably impinged directly on U.S. political objectives: (1) The United States objective of insuring "that the primary responsibility for the restoration of peace and security in Indochina rests with the French" was fulfilled; in development essay growth in nigerian philosophy structure fact, it was insisted on by the French. On the one hand, U.S. military forces were never directly engaged in the Indochina war. On the other hand, the French, in retaining this primary responsibility, preserved the prerogative to determine policy and the freedom to reject U.S. Spike Lee Do The Right! advice. U.S. "leverage" was minimal. (2) The condition of basing the assistance program on "an urgently prepared French plan acceptable to the Associated States and to the U.S." was frustrated in several ways. At the outset no overall plan was presented, and those portions of existing plans to research paper about, which U.S. authorities were privy (e.g., Allessandri's pacification plan for the Tonkin Delta) were not acceptable to U.S. thinking. Second, when the Letourneau-Allard and Navarre plans were finally prepared (in 1953, three years after the U.S. decided that a plan was a necessary precondition for aid), some U.S. observers realized that these were more concepts than plans. U.S. acceptance of the plans was more reluctant than the granting of $385 million in additional assistance might indicate. Finally, the plans, once "accepted," were not vigorously carried out. (3) The French met pro forma the condition that they provide the U.S. assurances that they would grant self-government for Indochina, and lee do thing, form national armies for research the Associated States. But it was clear throughout the war that, regardless of the amounts of U.S. assistance rendered, France's declarations of intent were grudgingly issued, and were seldom followed by action. The French Indochina war had to be lost before Vietnam was granted genuine independence. (4) Although France did expand its forces in thing essays Indochina, these forces were never sufficient to the task. French draftees were never employed in Indochina. France continually pointed to its European defense posture in explanation. In at least one case, U.S. personnel were requested (e.g., as aircraft mechanics), and personal for job application, 200 were provided, when a pool of suitable personnel existed in Metropolitan France. (5) Statements to the contrary notwithstanding, the French did not ameliorate neo-mercantilism or other colonial policies, or provide "proper tutelage" to the Associated States; nor did it develop a command structure suitable to the United States. (6) The U.S. "checks to satisfy itself that the conditions" imposed were being satisfied, were, by and large, few and far between, and were conducted at the pleasure and the right, within the specifications of the French. (7) The French chose not to refer Indochina to the United Nations. Economy Growth Structure! Certainly the U.S. Spike The Right Essays! assistance program bore on this decision; whether or not it was the deciding factor is unclear. The effectiveness of the United States assistance program as an instrument of United States policy--quite aside from the outcome of the war--was thus quite low. As earlier sections of this paper have suggested, the U.S. was persuaded to involve itself in the Indochina war by the perceived need, following the fall of Nationalist China, to hold a line against communists. This strategic drawing of the line at the Chinese-Indochina border was reinforced by self, the belief that the fall of Indochina would undoubtedly lead to spike lee do the right thing essays, the fall of the and dissertations database, other mainland states of Southeast Asia, and that the fall of Southeast Asia would eventuate in the virtually complete denial to the United States of the Pacific Littoral of Asia. Prospects for a French victory in Indochina were assessed in contemporary U.S. intelligence documents as poor; nonetheless, the U.S. provided military and economic assistance to the right, the French and the Associated States in the belief that a prompt, coordinated United States program of military, political, and economic aid offered some prospect that France might succeed in gaining the initiative in the struggle in that area. Six major points of critique of U.S. policy follow: a. Self Reflection! The U.S. Misestimated France. U.S. policymakers apparently realized that the conditions they imposed upon the French were impracticable to some degree. Nonetheless, they believed that pre-conditions were necessary and could assist in convincing the French to spike lee do the right thing essays, mend their colonial ways and to pursue the war with American methods, diligence, and aggressiveness. The French, long noted for proficiency and theses, precision in logic, required no Descartes to realize that the United States was thus asking France (I) to spike lee do, regain full responsibility for the Indochina War, and in particular for fighting and taking casualties in that war; (2) to follow the "guidance" and "advice" of the United States on the exercise of this French responsibility; and (3) having fought the war, presumably to a successful conclusion, to relinquish control over life essays tumblr Indochina. In view of the French willingness to retain responsibility for the war, it is not surprising that they were reluctant, at best, to accept propositions (2) and (3). Despite French pronouncements on their role in spike lee do fighting communism, there is theses database south, little reason to believe that they regarded the Indochina war in the same light as the U.S. viewed the Korean War. Rather, their behavior resembled that of other colonial powers who had fought to retain profitable cob- b. Slim Chance Accepted by the U.S. Had U.S. Spike The Right Thing! policymakers recognized the slimness of the chance of essay in nigerian philosophy public structure, persuading France to spike the right essays, accept the three propositions specified above, they might have sought alternative courses of action in personal statement application Indochina. As it was, the the right essays, possibility (as opposed to the probability) of success was their prime consideration, and, overestimating U.S. leverage for influencing a favorable outcome, alternatives were not considered. c. Circular U.S. Policy. Suppression of alternatives, both on the general and the particular level (see Note 48 for an example of the latter), led to a circularity in and reinforcement of existing policies--constant forced choices between "bad" and "worse." d. Poor Bargaining. Having taken a hard policy line toward the French, the United States failed to bargain effectively. Life Essays! Thus, in circumstances not totally dissimilar from those prevailing in Vietnam in subsequent time periods, the U.S. continued to provide assistance disregarding infractions of pre-conditions; moreover, the pre-conditions for spike lee do aid were not modified. Without modification, the conditions became worse than meaningless: standing testaments to U.S. impotence, to paper about, be recognized only when and how the French chose. The U.S. became virtually a prisoner of its own policy. Containment of communism, concern for the French in relation to the postwar Europe of NATO, EDC, and the Soviet threat in the West, combined with a fear, based on World War II strategy, that a French withdrawal from spike lee do the right thing Indochina would leave exposed the U.S. flank in life term Korea, all compelled the U.S. to continue aid. Yet none of lee do the right essays, these considerations should have precluded modification of the U.S. bargaining strategy. The U.S. policymaking machinery was highly vulnerable to spoofing, on at least three counts: (1) the very strength of the U.S. position regarding communism must have been a constant temptation, not always resisted, for other parties to cry "red" and development economy growth in nigerian philosophy structure, thus to manipulate the U.S.; (2) dependence on lee do the right, official French sources for intelligence and other information was potentially misleading; (3) reliance on the high-level mission technique for gathering information to be used as a direct input to policy decisions proved unsatisfactory. f. Costs Not Weighed. Finally, there is little indication that U.S. policymakers, their thoughts dominated by the objective of containing the monolithic communist bloc, faced up to the costs of winning the Indochina war, even while direct U.S. intervention was being considered. Research Paper! Nor does the evidence suggest that consideration was given to the tangible and intangible costs of providing U.S. military assistance to a power losing a war, including the potential impact on the U.S. position in Asia. And, finally, available documents fail to reveal any consideration given to the notion of sunk costs. There were, of course, voices in lee do the right the wilderness. Self On Writing! An unsigned, undated memorandum posed eight key questions to be answered by the NSC during the spring of 1954. Comment on the following four questions, in relation to the time at which they were raised, is unnecessary: --Just how important is Southeast Asia to the security interests of the U.S.? Is the analysis in NSC 5405 still valid? Is the area important enough to fight for? --How important is Indochina in spike lee do thing the defense of Southeast Asia? Is the "domino theory" valid? Is Indochina important enough to fight for? If not, what are the strategic consequences of the loss of all or part of Indochina? --If the U.S. intervenes in Indochina, can we count on the support of the natives? Can we fight as allies of the French and avoid the stigma of colonialism? --Is there a strategic concept for the conduct of a war in Indochina which offers promise of early success. . . ? The decision of the United States to provide assistance to France and reflection, the Assöciated States during the Indochina War is usually treated lightly, if at all, in current histories. Yet, both the taking of the decision and its implementation were significant for and remarkably similar to subsequent U.S. experiences in Vietnam. II. THE U.S. AND FRANCE'S WITHDRAWAL FROM VIETNAM, 1954-1956. Urged by America and France, Emperor Bao Dai named Ngo Dinh Diem premier of South (Free) Vietnam. Bao Dai remained legal, constitutionally recognized Chief of State. Geneva Accords signed. France became guarantor of spike lee do, Vietnamese sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity (Conference Final Declaration, Article 7); with the PAVN, guarantor of armistice agreements (Geneva Agreements, Articles 22, 23), and all-Vietnam elections (Conference Final Declaration, Article 7) France agreed to withdraw the French Expeditionary Corps at the request of local governments (Conference Final Declaration, Article 10, Unilateral Declaration, France) US policies toward post-Geneva Vietnam. Economic: disassociate France from levers of command, integrate land reform with refugee resettlement, work with the French but "encourage" them to turn over financial, administrative, economic controls to the Vietnamese. Give aid directly to the Vietnamese- not through France. Military: work with France only insofar as necessary to build up indigenous military forces able to provide internal security. Political: France must grant total independence (including right to withdraw from French Union) to South Vietnam and support a strong indigenous government. Diem must broaden the research paper, governmental base, elect an lee do the right thing, assembly, draft a constitution and legally dethrone Bao Dai. French support and cooperation for these poiicies was necessary; retention of the FEC was essential to South Vietnamese security. Jean Sainteny was sent to Hanoi to development essay philosophy public, find ways to protect French economic and cultural interests in the DRV. Political overtones of the mission annoyed the US and General Paul Ely, High Commissioner in thing the South. Ely received firm assurance from Mendes-France that France was not playing a "double game," has not sent Sainteny for political bridge-building purposes. Research Paper About Gun Control! Mendes-France reaffirmed French support for an independent, strong South Vietnam. Dulles' anti-communist military alliance was realized in SEATO.The Associated States of Indochina were covered by separate. protocol ensuring collective defense by SEATO nations in case ofsubversion or aggression. France agreed to spike lee do thing, support Diem (against the French belief that Diem would prove unable to unify or stabilize the growth in nigerian philosophy public, country); agreed to keep the FEC in South Vietnam but received no indication of spike thing, possible US financial aid for statement application the French forces. France knew economic and military aid would be given directly to Vietnam but was led to believe she would have a hand in its distribution by ambiguous US-drafted statements. The US military role in Vietnam was not discussed because of lee do the right essays, a State-JCS split (Dulles wanted to assume training responsibilities; JCS did not because of political instability, presence of life essays, French troops and Geneva restrictions). The U.S. Spike Lee Do Essays! decided to take firmer steps to strengthen Diem, to tell Paris that French support had been inadequate. An earlier JCS. concession to consider a training program for self reflection the NVA openedthe way for the decision to inaugurate a "limited" U.S. role in the right thing essays mili. Announced direct economic aid and military assistance from the U.S.; demanded no Vietnamese moves as reciprocation for aid. France called it a carte americaine, said it violated the principle of joint action adopted in September. General J. Lawton Collins, given broad authority to coordinate all U.S. programs and--with French support--get things moving, arrived in Vietnam. France will grant full autonomy to the VNA by July 1955, the U.S. will assume training responsibilities, the U.S. MAAG, Indochina, will direct the training program-under General Ely's over all authority. French and U.S. Life Papers Planet! instructors will be phased out as VNA efficiency increases. Lee Do The Right! Washington approved the Minute; Paris objected, particularly to the phase-out of French trainers. France. did not relent and consent until 11 February 1955. Diem's failure to include Dr. Quat in the cabinet as Defense Minister confirmed Collins' doubts about Diem's capacity to stabilize the government, or rally support for his regime. He recommended Bao Dai's return be considered, but if this were unacceptable, recommended the U.S. withdraw from Vietnam. Mendes-France insisted the time had come to consider an alternative to Diem. Self! Recommended Collins and spike lee do thing essays, Ely study the life, problem and come up with suggestions for spike the right essays a change by mid-January. France felt Bao Dai should be involved in on writing essay an alternative plan. Dulles: Diem is the only suitable leader but we will consider alternatives and will allow Collins and Ely to consider the matter. But Dulles made it clear that Congress would probably not appropriate funds to lee do thing essays, a Vietnam without Diem. U.S. study of personal statement for job application, alternatives was cursory, however; Dulles was sure Diem could succeed, with proper direction; he was more sure that no other possible leader existed. December's despair over Diem had dissipated; Diem's had acted well on a few matters. Collins recommended continued support for Diem because without it South Vietnam will surely fall to communism and the rest of other Southeast Asia will soon follow. The NSC approved Collins' report. General O'Daniel, under Ely's general supervision, took charge of programs to train and reorganize the spike lee do the right, VNA along American lines. Despite friction between French and Americans in Saigon and despite Paris-Washington disputes, officers in TRIM seemed able to theses, rise above differences and initiate sound programs for spike lee do the right essays the VNA. French subsidies to the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao sect armies-about 40,000 men-ended in February. When Diem refused to meet sect requests for financial aid, integration of forces into the VNA and recognition of other papers planet term, spheres of influence, previous sect cooperation with Diem ceased. Representatives of the Cao Dai, Hoa Hao, Dan Xa (Ba Cut), Lien Minh (Thinh Minh The) and spike lee do the right thing, Binh Xuyen (Bay Vien) forces met at Tay Ninh, agreed to work together against Diem. Cao Dai Pope Tac headed the group. Claiming to speak for the popular will, the United Front asked that Diem form a government of national union and make other political, economic, military reforms. Diem called this an ultimatum and refused to consider the request. The Front then sent an papers term, emissary to Bao Dai asking him to lee do the right thing, intervene on its behalf. Bao Dai refused. Brewing for months, the fight finally broke between Diem and the Binh Xuyen (a coalition of gangsters and river pirates which ran gambling and prostitution in other papers planet term Cholon, and the Saigon-Cholon police, paid Bao Dai for his protection and enjoyed some French support). A company of paratroopers took over the central police station, driving the Binh Xuyen back into Cholon. Diem then wanted to go after Police Commissioner Sang and end Binh Xuyen control. Defense Minister Minh resigned when Diem refused to consult the cabinet over this. However, French representations dissuaded Diem from taking on spike thing, Bay Vien's 600-man force at research paper gun control this. time, and the French then negotiated a truce between Diem and the Binh Xuyen. Collins says Diem has proved himself incapable of inspiring unity, and must be replaced. Dulles demurs, then agrees to spike lee do, consider a. change if Collins will fly to Washington for consultations. Diem calls for a national referendum and elections for a national assembly within six months. The Front scores the life essays tumblr, proposal. (Collins had left Saigon for Washington.) Diem replaces Sang with a man loyal to his regime but Sang refuses to resign saying. only Bao Dai had the spike, legal authority to personal statement for job, remove him. Collins met with Dulles in the right Washington. Dulles agreed to consider an alternate to Diem but was determined to keep this from life other papers the. French until their purposes were clear and their promise to spike the right thing, unequivocally support a new regime firm. Saigon was informed of this. Diem struck at the Sureté-and Sang-after fighting erupted be tween the VNA and theses database africa, Binh Xuyen forces in Cholon. The French said Diem instigated the fight; Americans supported Diem's version that the spike the right thing, Binh Xuyen began firing first. Whatever its origin, the fight ended with a VNA victory. The Binh Xuyen were driven out of theses and dissertations south, Cholon into the Rung Sat swamps. Diem's brother Nhu had a hand in organizing this broad amalgam of spike lee do the right, political interests behind a program calling for support of papers planet term, Diem. against the Binh Xuyen sects and Bao Dai, in favor of broad representation in the government. Generals The and Phuong, tired of the "weak" Revolutionary Congress, formed a Revolutionary Committee whose outlook was more anti-Bao Dai and anti-French than the spike thing essays, Congress. Present and former Vietminh supporters were members of the Congress and Committee. Bao Dai summoned Diem to replace the Army Chief of Staff with his own man. Diem ignored the summons and theses and dissertations database africa, orders. Because of spike essays, Diem's victory--superficial though it may have been--over the Binh Xuyen, because of VNA support for Diem, Dulles. canceled the cable of 28 April: again, the U.S. Self Reflection Essay! will support Diem. Diem announced a national campaign to regain "wayward" provinces and unify the thing essays, country. Or: he declared war on the sects. The. VNA fought over a year against Hoa Hao and Binh Xuyen forces, but finally established control over them, over areas of sect influence and control. Faure: We cannot support Diem-but Vietnam is not worth a split in theses database south africa Franco-American relations. Therefore, France offers to withdraw from Vietnam. Dulles: We must support Diem. But if a U.S. withdrawal would prevent discord, the U.S. will consider it. Then, after hearing JCS and Collins' arguments against either precipitate French withdrawal or a U.S. withdrawal, Dulles urged Faure to [words missing] Diem a while longer on the grounds that he will broaden the spike, government and statement for job application, call for elections. Faure agreed- against his own wishes and against strong popular pressure and on several conditions (most of which required action from Diem and spike lee do, which Dulles coud not guarantee). Dulles then suggested France and the U.S. apprise each other of policy and about, actions but pursue them more independently than in the past. The days of joint policy--of togetherness in spike lee do Vietnam--were over. France and Britain urged Diem to hold consultations with Hanoi for all-Vietnam elections, as stipulated in the Geneva Accords. The U.S. suggested consultations but also suggested Diem request firm guarantees (for secret ballot, UN or international supervision) which the DRV was expected to reject. But Diem refused to meet with the North Vietnamese. He had not signed the Geneva Accords and denied being bound by them in any way. With 98 percent of the vote, Diem became President of the Republic of Vietnam--and Bao Dai was dethroned. Diem wanted renegotiation of economic and financial accords reached in 1954; transfer of life essays, Vietnamese affairs from the ministry of the associated states to spike thing essays, the Foreign Office; abolition of Ely's former post of High Commissioner; termination of the military High Command and Vietnamese authority over for job application remaining French troops in Vietnam. (The FEC now numbered about lee do essays 35,000-- vice the personal statement for job, 150,000-man force which France spoke of retaining in Vietnam during the September 1954 Washington Conference.) France could not accept Diem's last demand; had difficulty satisfying the others, but finally made major concessions. Diem's response was to withdraw Vietnamese representatives from the French Union Assembly. French High Command abolished. Only about 5,000 French troops remained in Vietnam; most French instructors had left TRIM. A French liaison mission with the ICC still functioned, however, and France still served on the Joint Armistice Commission with DRV military representatives. Diem had refused to consult with the DRV about elections in 1955; he refused to hold them in 1956. Diem did agree to take over the French responsibility to spike the right thing, support the ICC; France would continue to finance ICC operations. The Joint Armistice Commission gradually died of life, inactivity. KEY AMERICAN PERSONALITIES: 1954-1956. 20 Jan 53-20 Jan 61. President: Dwight D. Eisenhower. Secretary of State: John Foster Dulles. Secretary of spike lee do essays, Defense: Charles E. Wilson. Ambassador to Vietnam: Donald R. Heath (25 Jun 52-20 Apr 55); Gen. J. Lawton Collins, Special Mission (8 Nov 54-6 May 55); G. Frederick Reinhart (20 Apr 55-14 Mar 57) Chairman, JCS: Arthur W. Radford, Adm., USN (14 Aug 53-15 Aug 57) Chief MAAG, Indochina: John W. Life Essays Tumblr! O'Daniel, Lt. Gen., USA (31 Mar 54-23 Oct 55); Samuel T. Williams, Lt. Gen., was 1st Chief of MAAG to Vietnam (24 Oct 55- 31 Aug 60) KEY FRENCH PERSONALITIES: 1954-1 956. Prime Minister: Pierre Mendes-France. Foreign Minister: Georges Bidault. Minister for Associated States: Guy La Chambre. Minister for National Defense: Rene Pleven. High Commissioner, Vietnam: General Paul Ely. 23 Feb 55-31 Jan 56. Prime Minister: Edgar Faure. Foreign Minister: Antoine Pinay. Minister for Associated States: M. La Forest. Minister for National Defense: General Pierre Koenig. High Commissioner, Vietnam: General Ely's post abolished after his departure, June 1955. (Gen. Jacquot assumed military responsibilities until April, 1956) Ambassador, Vietnam: Henri Hoppenot (July, 1955) 31 Jan 56-16 Apr 57. Prime Minister: Guy Mollet. Foreign Minister: Christian Pineau. Minister for National Defense: Maurice Bourges-Maunouvy. High Commissioner, Vietnam: (General Jacquot-military responsibilities until April 1956) Ambassador, Vietnam: M. Payart (November, 1956) KEY SOUTH VIETNAMESE PERSONALITIES: 1954-1956. Head of State: Bao Dai, Emperor. 12 Jan 54-16 Jun 54. Head of State: Bao Dai. Premier: Prince Buu Loc. Minister for Foreign Affairs: Nguyen Quoc Dinh. Head of State: Ngo Dinh Diem (President: 23 Oct 55) Premier: Ngo Dinh Diem. Minister for Foreign Affairs: Tran Van Do (Jul 54-May 55) Vq Van Mau (Jul 55-Nov 63) Minister for National Defense: Ngo Dinh Diem (General Minh served temporarily, early 1955). A. INTRODUCTION: POST-GENEVA EXPECTATIONS. 1. France Will Stay in Vietnam. After 100 years of investment, interest and influence, France got out of Vietnam in less than a year after the lee do thing, Geneva Conference of July 1954. And France did. ot want to development economy in nigerian philosophy, leave. On July 25, three days after signing the Geneva Accords, Prime Minister Mendes-France said France would maintain cultural and economic ties with North Vietnam and would assist the development of Free (South) Vietnam. The predecessor Laniel Government had recognized "Vietnam as a fully independent and sovereign state in possession of all qualifications and powers known in international law" on spike, June 4, 1954; Mendes-France pledged to uphold and further that treaty. Research Paper About! In August he announced a three-phase formula to lee do the right thing essays, implement it. Economic, administrative and financial ties with the Associated States would be terminated as fast as possible. By December 1954, the last vestiges of the research paper gun control, French colonial apparatus had been eliminated. Spike Lee Do The Right Essays! However, MendesFrance's formula viewed membership in the French Union as compulsory--indicative of French desire to stay in Vietnam but inimical to demands lodged by Diem and the United States for independence which included the right to self essay, withdraw from the French Union. Also in August, General Paul Ely, French High Commissioner in Vietnam, reaffirmed French support of Vietnamese independence and French readiness to further Vietnamese development. That the French had a role to play was clear: French economic investment, cultural institutions, military, political and administrative operations were already part of South Vietnamese life. That France must play a role was also clear. Under the Geneva Accords, France had pledged to guarantee all-Vietnam elections in thing essays 1956, guarantee execution of the armistice agreement, guarantee Vietnamese sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity, pledged to maintain the French Expeditionary Corps until Vietnam requested its removal. General Ely had been delegated extensive political and military authority to development in nigerian philosophy structure, enable him to meet these obligations. He worked sincerely to persuade both Vietnamese and French that mutual cooperation would be mutually beneficial, to erase the colonialist tinge of spike lee do essays, French presence, to both speed and smooth the French transition from master to equal partner of Vietnam. 2. Diem: France Will Leave South Vietnam. In this endeavor, Ely received qualified support from French officials, "colons" and military officers in Vietnam. Statement Application! He received sporadic support from Paris. He received almost no support from the Vietnamese. France was not welcome in Vietnam for many reasons, a major one being Premier Ngo Dinh Diem. A Francophobe of the first order, Diem wanted full independence for South Vietnam and wanted France out of the spike lee do thing, country as soon as possible. Many shared Diem's. sentiments. France had just lost a long, devastating and demoralizing war against Vietnamese communists as well as Vietnamese nationalists. French colonial rule had been tight, previous French promises of independence had been broken. Why believe professions of French good intentions in 1954 were any different from those of the past? Added to this was the problematical relationship of France vis-a-vis South Vietnam and the Democratic Republic of North Vietnam. Some South Vietnamese expected France to actively work toward accommodation with the Viet Minh and reunification of North and South under Viet Minh direction. Many more felt the fact of on writing essay, continued French presence alone compromised South Vietnamese independence. "To convince the people of Vietnam that the administration was independent, it became a political necessity to be anti-colonial and specifically anti-French." 3. The U.S. Will "Join" France in South Vietnam. Finally, France was not alone in Vietnam. More than Diem, more than the psychological damage done by colonial years, the United States made life in Vietnam difficult for France. The U.S. was eager to the right, strengthen Vietnam, needed and theses south, demanded French cooperation, but offered little in spike lee do the right essays return. U.S. policy insisted upon life tumblr, an immediate and dramatic transformation of French policy. But the U.S. little understood what this meant to France, what problems it created for French domestic and foreign policy or what U.S. concessions might help effect the thing essays, transformation. Although remnants of the French Expeditionary Corps remained until 1956, France was out of Vietnam to all intents and purposes by May 1955, ten months after Geneva. Research Paper Gun Control! These months are characterized by professions of Franco-American cooperation but demonstrations of thing, Franco-American division, characterized by conflict of essays, word and action on several levels. Spike The Right Thing Essays! Paris said one thing but did another, Paris said one thing and French officials in Saigon did the opposite; Washington activities were not always in line with Washington pronouncements and the gulf between the and dissertations database south africa, thought and deed of Ngo Dinh Diem only compounded an the right, already sensitive situation. It is during this period that Diem established his rule, against paper French advice and best interests but with almost unwavering support from Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. And it is the period during which the anti-communist moralism of lee do essays, Dulles and Diem rejected any rapprochement with the North, ultimately ensuring that the temporary military demarkation line would become a permanent division of Vietnam. B. INITIAL U.S. POLICY TOWARD INDOCHINA. The U.S. began revising policy toward Indochina as the Geneva Conference closed. The exercise was marked by urgency dictated by the belief that Geneva had been a disaster for the free world. Geneva gave Communist China and North Vietnam a new base for exploitation of Southeast Asia; it enhanced Peking's prestige to essay, Washington's dismay and detriment; it restricted free world room to maneuver in Southeast Asia. And its grant of spike essays, Vietnamese territory above the seventeenth parallel to the communist Ho Chi Minh was a painful reminder of the scarifying French defeat by the Viet Minh, the paper about, first defeat of thing essays, a European power by Asians (Asian communists at theses and dissertations database africa that), a defeat shared by the United States to the tune of more than $1.5 billion in thing essays economic and military assistance granted France and the Associated States of Indochina. 1. SEATO: The New Initiative? The first step toward countering this disaster had been discussed with Britain and research about, France since the spring of 1954, and Walter Bedell Smith's comment as Geneva closed, "We must get that pact!," heralded its inauguration. The Southeast Asian Collective Defense Treaty was to be a "new initiative in Southeast Asia" to protect the U.S. position in spike the right thing essays the Far East and stabilize "the present chaotic situation . . . to prevent further losses to communism" through subversion or overt aggression. But the south africa, Manila Pact, signed on September 8, 1954, proved to be neither the new initiative nor the strong anti-communist shield called for by Secretary Dulles. Vice Admiral A. C. Davis, deputy assistant secretary and Defense Department representative at Manila, reported the Pact left Southeast Asia "no better prepared than before to cope with Communist aggression." The failure was largely of spike the right essays, American making. While Dulles wanted to put the communists on notice that aggression would be opposed, the Joint Chiefs of Staff insisted the United States must not be committed financially, militarily or economically to unilateral action in paper the Far East and that U.S. freedom of action must not be restricted. The two objectives conflicted and one cancelled out the other. Thus, Article IV of the treaty, the mechanism for collective action in case of enemy threat, did not pledge automatic response with force to force. Instead, each signatory promised to "act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes." The United States, particularly Mr. Dulles, tried to put teeth into SEATO through unilateral declarations of U.S. Spike Lee Do The Right Thing Essays! readiness to act. Dulles defined the obligations under Article IV as "a clear and definite agreement on the part of the signatories, including the personal statement, United States, to thing essays, come to the aid of any member of the Pact who under the terms of this treaty is subjected to aggression." However, Dulles failed to instill the same dedication to instant intervention in the other SEATO members. The obligation assumed at Manila emphasized the importance attached to development economy essay philosophy public, Southeast Asia by the U.S. Government. U.S. Essays! refusal to pledge unqualified support to Indochina emphasized the need for indigenous strength and stability in the area to counter communist power, to make infiltration and aggression less appetizing to the enemy. Of the three Indochina states, most important yet least stable and least strong was South Vietnam. Reflection On Writing! Thus, the second step in policy development was to decide what the U.S. could do to change the situation, a decision which turned on what France could or would do in South Vietnam. 2. Alternative French Policies. That France and lee do the right, the United States would eventually part company over Vietnam might have been predicted in August 1954, when U.S. policy toward Vietnam was drawn. Formulae for economic, military and especially political courses of action were different from-often antithetical to-French objectives and interests. The U.S. intelligence community felt if France "acted swiftly to insure Vietnam full independence and to encourage strong nationalist leadership . . . anti-French nationalist activity might be lessened (and) with French military and economic assistance-backed by U.S. aid-the Vietnamese could proceed to develop gradually an life essays tumblr, effective security force, local government organization and a long range program for economic and social reform." But there were three other routes or combinations of routes open to France in post-Geneva Vietnam. France could work to maintain French Union ties, indirect French political control and economic domination rather than grant full independence to Vietnam. Spike Lee Do Essays! Or, France could try to reach an agreement with the self essay, Viet Minh, expedite elections and achieve a unified country in lee do thing essays which French cultural, economic and political interests could be maintained. A fourth possibility, thought likely only if the self reflection essay, situation deteriorated to the point of hopelessness, was a French decision to withdraw all military, economic and administrative support from Indochina. Of the four courses of action open to France, three were rejected by the Eisenhower Administration. Continuation of French Union ties plus indirect French controls would be impossible under Diem, whose anti-French feeling ran deep, who had not in the past and would not now accept anything less than complete freedom from spike the right thing France. And Diem had American backing. Dulles believed "the kind of thing he stands for" is the "necessary ingredient of success" and called the Diem government the "nucleus for future efforts." Accommodation with the Viet Minh was anathema to both Diem and paper gun control, the U.S. Although American policy spoke of taking steps to prevent the spike essays, complete absorption of the DRV into the Soviet bloc, those steps amounted to nothing more than maintenance of essay growth in nigerian philosophy, a U.S. consulate in Hanoi. Dulles in particular could not see Ho Chi Minh as Asia's Tito and refused to deal with him, thereby crushing Mendes-France's hope that Vietnam could become an experiment in peaceful coexistence. The U.S. Spike The Right Thing! was equally determined to prevent the life other papers planet term, quick withdrawal of the French Expeditionary Corps from Vietnam. It was believed: in the last analysis, Vietnamese security will be determined by the degree of French protection and lee do the right thing essays, assistance in the development of a national army, plus Vietnamese energies and the will of other powers to guarantee Vietnamese security. Thus, United States policy required France to grant full Vietnamese independence quickly and to support a strong indigenous political regime, to maintain French military presence but reduce military, economic and political controls. Basic guidance determined at National Security Council meetings on August 8 and 12 became NSC 5429/2, issued on August 20.

By World Assembly of Muslim Youth 1. Muslims believe that the present life is a trial in preparation for the next realm of existence. When a Muslim dies, he or she is washed and wrapped in a clean, white cloth (usually by a family member) and buried after a special prayer, preferably the same day. Muslims consider this a final service that they can do for their relatives and spike lee do the right thing essays, an opportunity to life, remember that their own existence here on earth is brief. The question of whether there is life after death does not fall under the jurisdiction of science, as science is concerned only with classification and analysis of sense data. Lee Do The Right? Moreover, man has been busy with scientific inquiries and research, in the modern sense of the term, only for the last few centuries, while he has been familiar with the concept of life after death since time immemorial. All the personal statement application, Prophets of God called their people to worship God and to believe in life after death. They laid so much emphasis on the belief in life after death that even a slight doubt in it meant denying God and made all other beliefs meaningless. The very fact that all the lee do essays, Prophets of tumblr, God have dealt with this metaphysical question of life after death so confidently and so uniformly - the gap between their ages in some cases, being thousands of years - goes to prove that the source of their knowledge of life after death as proclaimed by them all, was the same, i.e. Divine revelation. We also know that these Prophets of God were greatly opposed by their people, mainly on the issue of spike the right essays, life after death, as their people thought it impossible. But in spite of opposition, the Prophets won many sincere followers. The question arises: what made those followers forsake the established beliefs, traditions and database africa, customs of the right thing essays, their forefathers, notwithstanding the risk of personal application, being totally alienated from their own community? The simple answer is: they made use of their faculties of mind and heart and realized the truth. Did they realize the truth through perceptual consciousness? They couldn’t, as perceptual experience of life after death is impossible. God has given man besides perceptual consciousness, rational, aesthetic and spike lee do thing essays, moral consciousness too. It is this consciousness that guides man regarding realities that cannot be verified through sensory data. That is why all the research about gun control, Prophets of God while calling people to believe in God and life after death, appeal to the aesthetic, moral and the right essays, rational consciousness of man. For example, when the idolaters of Makkah denied even the possibility of life after death, the Quran exposed the weakness of their stand by development economy in nigerian public structure, advancing very logical and rational arguments in support of it: And he (i.e. man) presents for Us an example (i.e. attempting to establish the finality of thing essays, death) and forgets his [own] creation. He says, “Who will give life to bones while they are disintegrated?” Say, “He will give them life who produced them the self reflection, first time; and He is, of all creation, Knowing.” [It is] He who made for spike lee do thing essays you from the life, green tree, fire, and then from it you ignite. Is not He who created the spike lee do the right thing, heavens and the earth Able to create the likes of them? Yes, [it is so]; and He is the Knowing Creator. Essay Growth? (Quran, 36:78-81) On another occasion, the Quran very clearly says that the disbelievers have no sound basis for their denial of spike the right thing essays, life after death. It is based on pure conjecture: And they say, “There is not but our worldly life; we die and personal for job application, live (i.e. some people die and others live, replacing them) and nothing destroys us except time.” And they have of that no knowledge; they are only assuming. Spike Lee Do The Right? And when Our verses are recited to them as clear evidences, their argument is only that they say, “Bring [back] our forefathers, if you should be truthful.” Say, “God causes you to live, then causes you to other planet term, die; then He will assemble you for the Day of spike lee do the right, Resurrection, about which there is no doubt,” but most of the people do not know. (Quran, 45:24-26) Surely God will raise all the dead. But God has His own plan of things. A day will come when the life papers term, whole universe will be destroyed and then the dead will be resurrected to stand before God. That day will be the beginning of a life that will never end, and on that day every person will be rewarded by God according to his or her good or evil deeds. The explanation that the Quran gives about the necessity of life after death is what the spike the right, moral consciousness of man demands. Actually, if there is research paper, no life after death, the very belief in the right essays, God becomes meaningless or even if one believes in God, it would be n unjust and indifferent God, having once created man and now not being concerned with his fate. Surely, God is just. He will punish the tyrants, whose crimes are beyond count - having tortured and killed hundreds or thousands of innocent people, created great corruption in society, enslaved numerous persons to serve their whims, etc., because man has a very short life span in development philosophy public structure, this world and because numerous individuals are affected by the right thing essays, one’s actions, adequate punishments and rewards are not possible in this life. The Quran very emphatically states that the database, Day of Judgment must come and the right thing, that God will decide the fate of each soul according to his or her record of life other planet, deeds: But those who disbelieve say, “The Hour (i.e. the spike thing essays, Day of Judgment) will not come to us.” Say, “Yes, by my Lord, it will surely come to you. Development Economy Public Structure? [God is] the spike lee do thing essays, Knower of the paper, unseen.” Not absent from Him is an spike lee do thing essays atom’s weight within the heavens or within the self on writing essay, earth or [what is] smaller than that or greater, except that it is in spike, a clear register - That He may reward those who believe and do righteous deeds. Those will have forgiveness and life planet term, noble provision. But those who strive against Our verses [seeking] to cause failure (i.e. to undermine their credibility) - for them will be a painful punishment of the right, foul nature. (Quran, 34:3-5) The Day of Resurrection will be the Day when God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy will be in full manifestation. God will shower His mercy on life other planet term those who suffered for His sake in the worldly life, believing that an eternal bliss was awaiting them. But those who abused the bounties of lee do, God, caring nothing for the life to come, will be in the most miserable state. Drawing a comparison between them, the Quran says: Then is life other papers term, he whom We have promised a good promise which he will meet [i.e. obtain] like he for whom We provided enjoyment of worldly life [but] then he is, on the Day of Resurrection, among those presented [for punishment in Hell]? (Quran, 28:61) The Quran also states that this worldly life is a preparation for the eternal life after death. But those who deny it become slaves of their passions and desires, making fun of virtuous and God-conscious persons. Such persons realize their folly only at lee do the right thing essays the time of their death and wish to be given a further chance in the world but in for job application, vain. Their miserable state at the time of lee do the right thing, death, and the horror of the paper, Day of Judgment, and the eternal bliss guaranteed to the sincere believers are very clearly and beautifully mentioned in the following verses of the Quran: [For such is the state of the spike lee do the right, disbelievers], until, when death comes to one of them, he says, “My Lord, send me back that I might do righteousness in that which I left behind (i.e. in that which I neglected).” No! It is only a word he is saying; and behind them is a barrier until the statement application, Day they are resurrected. So when the Horn is blown, no relationship will there be among them that Day, nor will they ask about one another. And those whose scales are heavy [with good deeds] - it is the right thing, they who are the successful. But those whose scales are light - those are the ones who have lost their souls, [being] in Hell, abiding eternally. The Fire will sear their faces, and they therein will have taut smiles (i.e. their lips having been contracted by scorching until the teeth are exposed). Life Essays? (Quran, 23:99-104) The belief in life after death not only guarantees success in the Hereafter but also makes this world full of spike lee do the right, peace and happiness by making individuals most responsible and dutiful in their activities. Think of the paper about, people of Arabia before the arrival of the Prophet Muhammad . Gambling, wine, tribal feuds, plundering and murdering were their main traits when they had no belief in life after death. But as soon as they accepted the belief in the One God and life after death they became the most disciplined nation of the world. They gave up their vices, helped each other in hours of need, and settled all their disputes on the basis of justice and equality. Similarly the denial of life after death has its consequences not only in the Hereafter but also in spike lee do the right essays, this world. When a nation as a whole denies it, all kinds of evils and corruption become rampant in that society and ultimately it is destroyed. The Quran mentions the terrible end of Aad, Thamud and the Pharaoh in some detail: [The tribes of] Thamud and Aad denied the Striking Calamity [i.e. the other papers term, Resurrection]. Lee Do Thing? So as for Thamud, they were destroyed by the overpowering [blast]. And as for Aad, they were destroyed by life other papers, a screaming, violent wind which He [i.e. God] imposed upon them for seven nights and eight days in succession, so you would see the people therein fallen as if they were hollow trunks of palm trees. Then do you see of them any remains? And there came Pharaoh and those before him and the overturned cities (i.e. Thing Essays? those to which Lot was sent) with sin. Research Paper About Gun Control? And they disobeyed the messenger of their Lord, so He seized them with a seizure exceeding [in severity]. Indeed, when the water overflowed, We carried you [i.e. your ancestors] in the sailing ship (i.e. which was constructed by Noah). That We might make it for you a reminder and [that] a conscious ear would be conscious of it. (Quran, 69:4-12) God states in the Quran about the events of the Day of Judgment: Then when the Horn is blown with one blast, and the earth and the mountains are lifted and leveled with one blow [i.e. stroke] - Then on that Day, the Occurrence [i.e. Resurrection] will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm (i.e. weak, enfeebled and spike the right essays, unstable). And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them]. Africa? That Day, you will be exhibited [for judgment]; not hidden among you is anything concealed (i.e. The Right Thing Essays? any person or any secret you might attempt to conceal). So as for he who is given his record in development economy growth in nigerian public structure, his right hand, he will say, “Here, read my record! Indeed, I was certain that I would be meeting my account.” So he will be in a pleasant life - In an elevated Garden, Its [fruit] to be picked hanging near. [They will be told], “Eat and drink in satisfaction for what you put forth (i.e. literally, advanced in lee do the right, anticipation of reward in research about, the Hereafter) in the days past.” But as for spike lee do thing essays he who is given his record in life other planet, his left hand, he will say, “Oh, I wish I had not been given my record, and had not known what is my account. Spike Lee Do The Right Thing? I wish it [i.e. my death] had been the decisive one (i.e. Personal For Job Application? ending life rather than being the gateway to eternal life). My wealth has not availed me. Gone from me is my authority.” [God will say], “Seize him and shackle him. Then into Hellfire drive him. Then into a chain whose length is seventy cubits insert him.” Indeed, he did not used to believe in God, the Most Great. (Quran, 69:13-33) The Prophet Muhammad taught that three things continue to benefit a [believing] person even after death - charity which he had given (which continues to benefit others), beneficial knowledge which he had left behind (i.e. authored or taught), and supplication on his behalf by lee do the right thing, a righteous child (Narrated by Saheeh Muslim ). Thus, there are very convincing reasons to believe in life after death: 1) All the Prophets of God have called their people to believe in it. 2) Whenever a human society is essays, built on the basis of this belief, it has been the most ideal and peaceful society, free of social and moral evils. 3) History bears witness that whenever this belief is rejected collectively by lee do thing, a group of people in life essays tumblr, spite of the repeated warning of the Prophet, the group as a whole has been punished by God even in this world. 4) Moral, aesthetic and rational faculties of man endorse the possibility of the life after death. 5) God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy have no meaning if there is no life after death.

Extracts from this document. Should We Go To War With Iraq? - Discursive Essay In ancient times Iraq was called Mesopotamia, a Greek word meaning "land between the rivers." This Middle Eastern country lies partly between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a fertile area often regarded as the frame of civilization. Its history dates back some 5,000 years. Today the Republic of Iraq, located at the headwaters of the spike lee do essays, Persian Gulf, is a leading producer of petroleum. Many countries surround Iraq. Turkey on the north, Iran on the east, the Persian Gulf on the southeast, Kuwait and statement for job, Saudi Arabia on the south, and Jordan and Syria on the west border of Iraq. The country has an area of 167,975 square miles. The Great Zab River flows into spike Iraq from Turkey and eventually merges with the Tigris 30 miles southeast of Mosul. The country consists primarily of lowlands that seldom exceed 300 feet in elevation. Economy Essay Public Structure! The hills in northeastern Iraq rise into the Zagros Mountains, which extend along the border with Iran and reach an elevation of 12,001 feet at Rawanduz. To the south and southwest, Iraq shares desert steppe with Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. Part of the Syrian Desert extends into the country in the northwest. A region unique to Iraq is the spike lee do the right, marshy lowland that surrounds the Shatt al Arab waterway and paper gun control, the union of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers just below Al Qurna. . read more. The first Allied prisoners of war were released. The official cease-fire was accepted and signed on April 6th. 532,000 U.S. forces served in spike lee do the right Operation Desert Storm. Database South! There were a total of spike, 148 U.S. battle deaths during the Gulf War, 145 non-battle deaths, and 467 wounded in action. 11 years later on and a very similar situation is at hand. The same evil tyrant only about a different President Bush. Also, so far Iraq has not actually committed an act of violence against another nation but it is believed that they plan to for they have more weapons than they are allowed under the UN's regulations and it is also predicted that they have or soon will have weapons of spike, mass destruction such as implements of nuclear and biological warfare. UN weapons inspectors are currently searching Iraq for such weapons but are yet to produce enough evidence to obtain a UN mandate for war. Recently, the gun control, United States and Britain have signalled they believe they already have United Nations authority for a war against Iraq and that no further UN resolution is necessary. At a meeting with the spike lee do the right thing, US Secretary of State, Colin Powell, in Washington, Britain's Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, said that if the UN Security Council did not back the use of force against Iraq, "the authority of the UN and the international order" would be at research paper gun control, stake. . read more. This suggests that he has something to hide. Spike Essays! As I mentioned earlier, a large percentage of this countries petroleum supplies come from Iraq. If America decides to life essays tumblr, take military action against Iraq and get rid of Saddam Hussein, the Iraqi dictator will leave behind a lot of oil. This could send the current oil prices plummeting. Although this may be good news to the consumer, companies with shares in the mining industry could lose out on lee do thing, hundreds of pounds worth of theses south africa, investments. Also many British oil companies could go out of business, which could trigger a recession in the whole economy of the United Kingdom. This may sound implausible but it is a real hazard that has to be considered in this situation. Thing! When all of the evidence is taken in to consideration, it is plain to see that the number of reasons for a war with Iraq easily outnumbers the reasons against it but when you look at the content of the reasons, most of the philosophy public structure, grounds for an attack are insubstantial to justify a fully fledged war with Saddam Hussein. On the one hand he may have weapons of mass destruction but does this compensate for the bombing of millions of innocent people? Surely there is a way to avoid a war fought with missile and spike the right, payed for by victim's lives. My opinion is that forces should be dispatched in to life term, Iraq but only to seize their arsenals and control their firepower and only use force when necessary against the probable resistance. Lee Do The Right Essays! . read more. This student written piece of paper gun control, work is one of many that can be found in our AS and A Level International History, 1945-1991 section. Start learning 29% faster today 150,000+ documents available Just £6.99 a month. Join over 1.2 million students every month Accelerate your learning by essays 29% Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month. Related AS and A Level International History, 1945-1991 essays. The United Nations and the Iraq Conflict. The Iraq War depicts this issue exactly. Through examination, it is obvious that the countries which were responsible for leading the military actions in Iraq were of high importance in our Modern World. Life Other Papers Term! The chief countries, the lee do the right essays, United States and Great Britain, both have large populations, are permanent members on. The President of the United States and Queen Victoria managed to exchange pleasantries across all those thousands of miles. Unfortunately, the line only worked for just over two weeks. The Victorian scientists had not anticipated the high voltages that were required to send messages across those thousands of miles. Guards, who were serving Mao only.17 This was exactly what Mao had wanted, he didn't want anyone in personal for job power who was going to question him and his authority, he personally wanted Liu Shaoqi and the right essays, Deng Xiaoping out of power, as they had previously spoken out life other papers about Mao's greatest mistake, the Great Leap Forward18. "June 1991, civil war broke out in Yugoslavia. The security council established the UN protection force, though the spike lee do, efforts of the UNPROFOR were unable to prevent the continuing violence and frequent outburst of fighting" (UN and Problems). Two of the most recent examples of UN failure are the prevention of. I have chosen to debate whether the decision to attack Iraq was indeed a . This war was indefinitely a "War of development economy growth in nigerian philosophy public structure, Terror" in more forms that were expressed publicly in the press. The number of spike essays, soldiers, civilians, and essay philosophy public structure, reporters killed in "friendly fire" was exceedingly high and many of lee do, these numbers are increasing every day, six months after the end of the reflection on writing essay, war. Saddam Hussein was nervous about the revolution in Iran. Saddam had a secular balance between the lee do, Sunni and Shiite Muslims in Iraq, and was worried that it might be disturbed by and dissertations database south his religious Shiite neighbors. Saddam also wanted to establish Iraq as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Many peoples have contributed to the development of the United States of lee do the right thing essays, America, a . He skillfully outmaneuvered the South Carolinians, forcing them to relent. In 1832 he vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the life, United States on the grounds that it caused the booms and busts that so alarmed the country and that it served the wealthy while exploiting the farmers and working people. Since 1895, Booker T. WASHINGTON had urged that blacks should not actively agitate for equality, but should acquire craft skills, work industriously, and convince whites of their abilities. W. The Right Thing! E. B. DU BOIS insisted instead (in The Souls of Black Folk, 1903) of student written work Annotated by. experienced teachers Ideas and feedback to. improve your own work. Marked by Teachers, The Student Room and Get Revising are all trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. TurnItIn – the anti-plagiarism experts are also used by: Want to read the reflection on writing essay, rest? Sign up to view the whole essay and download the spike lee do the right thing, PDF for anytime access on your computer, tablet or smartphone. Start learning 29% faster today 150,000+ documents available Just £6.99 a month. Looking for expert help with your History work? Created by teachers, our study guides highlight the development essay growth philosophy public, really important stuff you need to know.